Choking under pressure: Self-consciousness and paradoxical effects of incentives on skillful performance

Abstract

Choking under pressure is defined as performance decrements under circumstances that increase the importance of good or improved performance. The present author proposes a model for choking on coordination and skill tasks, holding that the pressure increases the conscious attention to the performer's own process of performance and that this increased conscious attention disrupts the automatic or overlearned nature of the execution. Six experiments, with approximately 120 Ss, provide data consistent with this model. Three studies show that increased attention to one's own process of performance resulted in performance decrements. Three other studies show similar decrements produced by situational manipulations of pressure (i.e., implicit competition, a cash incentive, and audience-induced pressure). Individuals low in dispositional self-consciousness were shown to be more susceptible to choking under pressure than those high in it.